China is not a NATO adversary but it must "uphold its international commitments and act responsibly in the international system", he told Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi in a videolink call, the Alliance said in a statement.

Stoltenberg "raised NATO's concerns over China's coercive policies, expanding nuclear arsenal and lack of transparency on its military modernisation," it said.

He stressed that "reciprocal transparency and dialogue on arms control would benefit both NATO and China".

The situation in Afghanistan, with which China shares a tiny stretch of border, was also raised, with the NATO secretary general saying there should be "a coordinated international approach, including with countries from the region, to hold the Taliban accountable for their commitments on countering terrorism and upholding human rights, not least the rights of women".