Perfumes had a profound significance in ancient Egyptian civilisation, spanning the Pharaonic era and then continuing through the Graeco-Roman, Coptic, and Islamic periods. Beyond their role in daily life, perfumes were deeply woven into religious ceremonies and funerary rites.
The current Perfumes of Ancient Egypt through the Ages exhibition at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo’s Tahrir Square brings together artefacts and historical evidence through the ages, shedding light on the enduring cultural and spiritual value of fragrances.
The exhibition is distinguished by its unique approach, immersing visitors in the scents of carefully recreated ancient perfumes and incense and offering an interactive journey through Egypt’s history, with virtual reality bringing the past to life. Through cutting-edge virtual reality installations, visitors can witness how these fragrances were crafted and used in rituals and daily life, offering a sensory journey through Egypt’s fragrant past.
Ali Abdel-Halim, director-general of the Egyptian Museum, told Al-Ahram Weekly that “the exhibition will be extended until the end of Ramadan, showcasing 80 artefacts from various historical periods and spanning from the earliest times to the Islamic era through the Graeco-Roman and Byzantine periods.”
“All the artefacts reflect Egypt’s enduring influence in the realm of perfumes. They explore themes such as raw materials and their types, preparation techniques, and the various uses of perfumes, whether for adornment, healing, or rituals. Additionally, the exhibition highlights the economic and cultural significance of perfumes as a means of communication between civilisations throughout history.”
The exhibition is the result of a collaboration between the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) and the University of Montpellier Paul-Valéry in France. It brings together artefacts from the Egyptian Museum, the Museum of Islamic Art, and the Coptic Museum in Cairo, offering a comprehensive perspective on the importance, uses, and techniques of perfume production in ancient Egypt.
The exhibition is divided into six sections beginning with the geography of aromatics, raw materials and perfumers, and the secular use of perfumes covering cosmetics, pharmacopoeia, economy, politics, and references in ancient Egyptian literature. The fourth and fifth sections highlight the religious and the funerary uses of perfumes, while the final section explores contemporary research on perfumes in Egypt from antiquity to the present time.
It features perfume flasks discovered at the Buto archaeological site, the recreation of kyphi, an incense and perfume originating in ancient Egypt, and virtual reality experiences providing visitors with insights into perfumes in ancient Egypt.
Abdel-Halim explained that the first section showcases the geography and trade of the herbs and spices used in perfume-making. Aromatic products transported from Nubia, which included incense, moringa, pine, cypress, aromatic herbs, and resin, are on show.
The exhibition features a model ship symbolising the ancient Egyptian queen Hatshepsut’s expedition to the Land of Punt, from which the ancient Egyptians imported myrrh and frankincense for perfume-making.
“The kneeling statue of Hatshepsut and the statue of Amun on show represent the ritual in which Hatshepsut presented offerings brought from her expeditions, including trees, myrrh, and frankincense, as gifts to Amun,” said Abdel-Halim.
The first section of the exhibition also features the sarcophagus of a Minaean merchant, who supplied myrrh and calamus essences to the temples of Egyptian deities. Dating back to the sixth century BCE, the sarcophagus originates from the Kingdom of Maain, an ancient South Arabian kingdom in modern-day Yemen. At that time, Maain was a major hub for the incense trade, with its people serving as perfume traders and emissaries from southern Arabia to the Levant.
“The sarcophagus of this Yemeni merchant, who was buried in Egypt at his own request, stands as a testament to Egypt’s enduring openness and hospitality towards different peoples throughout history.” Abdel-Halim pointed out.
At the beginning of the second section there is a limestone column adorned with papyrus, lotus, and lily plant designs that serves as a distinctive archaeological testament to the raw materials used in perfumes.
While traditional columns typically feature a single capital, this column is unique in that it has three stacked capitals above a single column. The design appears to be intricate due to the depiction of the plants through sunken reliefs. This consists of three plant stems that correspond with the capitals, resembling a carefully arranged bouquet of flowers.
To showcase the raw materials used to make perfumes, the display includes a mould made of a thick terracotta disc representing the blue lotus flower of Egypt. This flower matrix was likely used to create objects in faience.
The exhibit also includes lotus flowers, fragments of flower garlands, castor seeds, and olive pits, which date back to the Roman period. A photograph of a single rotating screw press is also displayed with a handle at its lower end. This is known as the Bakkur Oil Press and is dated to the 19th century and originates from Esna in Upper Egypt.
An ostracon depicting two shepherds and their flocks symbolises how the ancient Egyptians used oxen fat in the production of ointments and perfumes. There is also a small pestle and mortar, common tools used by pharmacists and perfumers for grinding and mixing raw substances.
OBJECTS: From the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, a set of eight unguent vases of Sat-Hathor-Merit and their stand, used to store sacred oils, is displayed.
Also included is an unguent vase made of terracotta and the linen used to preserve oils and ointments, which could either be offered to the deceased or placed in the tomb beside its owner.
The second section of the exhibition features items reflecting the profession of the perfumer, such as a lintel from the 26th Dynasty, which illustrates the aromatic production stages for using lilies in perfumes, including gathering, transporting, pressing the flowers, collecting the oil, and finally storing the finished product in jars to be offered to a tomb’s owner.
The third section of the exhibition showcases the secular uses of perfumes, featuring a stelae of King Sneferu depicted before an ointment vase and a set of 17 alabaster vases containing the remains of ointment from the 18th Dynasty. A perfume bottle made of faience and linen and a wicker basket holding a glass toiletry set are also displayed.
According to the exhibition booklet, both men and women in ancient Egypt used perfume. The abundance of perfume vases discovered during archaeological excavations reflects the interest in perfume at the time. Among the most common items are ointment vases, which were named bas in ancient Egypt and frequently appeared in tombs dating from the third to the sixth dynasties. These vases are often depicted being held by figures, along with the lotus flower, which was used for inhaling its aroma.
Throughout various periods, the bas vase was widely used for anointing oil, as well as for storing medjet ointment and the seven sacred oils and unguents.
Perfumed substances were typically applied with cosmetic spoons, which are known since the First Dynasty and continued to be used through the Graeco-Roman period. These objects, particularly in the New Kingdom, became masterpieces of Egyptian craftsmanship.
During the New Kingdom, myrrh was the primary fragrance used in ointment cones. Men and women wore these cones at banquets, in gynaeceum, and during royal ceremonies. The discovery of two ointment cones at Amarna confirms their existence.
The lotus also played an essential role during the New Kingdom 18th Dynasty, being an ever-present symbol in daily life and religious festivals. To commemorate such events, women sometimes wore necklaces scented with lotus and mandrake.
Some papyri, such as the Ebers’ Papyrus 711, include medical prescriptions for patient care or hygiene incorporating fragrant plants. For example, to eliminate body odour, one would boil frankincense, mix it into a homogeneous mass, form a small pellet, and place it at the junction of the body parts.
In ancient Egyptian literature, the booklet says, many references to perfume can be found in the “Songs of Love”. In these texts, perfume, whether natural or manufactured, remains a significant symbol of desire. This literary genre emerged during the New Kingdom and flourished rapidly. The works are often dialogues between lovers, referred to as “brother” and “sister” and each complaining about the torments caused by the other.
Perfumes are described using two polysemous words, one for the scents emitted by a person or object, and the other for the fragrances inhaled by the subject. For instance, in the Chester Beatty I Papyrus, it is written that “Heaven will come down in a puff of wind and bring you, its fragrance. The fragrance will flood and intoxicate those who are present.”
The exhibition booklet reveals that not only mortal women can be seduced with perfume, but male divinities can be too. The site of Deir Al-Medinah, the village of craftsmen who decorated royal tombs in Upper Egypt, offers valuable insights into the economy of the New Kingdom. Among the abundant documentation from this site, about 40 texts mention incense, emphasising its central role in both institutional and private exchanges.
Institutional exchanges were mainly recorded on jar labels, indicating large quantities of incense which were likely redistributed or exchanged between institutions. Private exchanges, recorded mainly in letters, generally involved smaller amounts. Access to incense appears to have been regulated by temple administrations, likely due to its crucial role in daily religious rituals.
The fourth and fifth sections of the exhibition, dedicated to the religious and funerary uses of perfumes, showcase objects showing how the gods in ancient Egypt were passionate about perfumes.
They note that Amun and his fragrant emanations are frequently mentioned during the reign of Hatshepsut. Other deities, such as Nefertem, were closely associated with perfumes. Nefertem embodies the lotus, whose fragrance Re, the sun god in ancient Egypt, inhales every morning as he rises on the horizon.
Moreover, it was believed that the rising smoke from burning aromatic resins purified the worship space, facilitating communication between gods and humans. As a result, it was commonly used during rituals.
The exhibition booklet says that in Graeco-Roman times, the temples of Edfu, Dendara, Kom Ombo, and Athribis housed a laboratory or precious workshop where sacred perfume recipes were created. One of the walls was decorated with illustrations, and among the perfumes produced was kyphi, which was burned every evening to ensure restful sleep.
The recipe for kyphi, made from resins and myrrh, is also mentioned by classical Greek authors such as Dioscorides.
EMBALMING: Whether in pagan or Christian Egypt, incense marked the boundary between the sacred and the profane.
In Christian rites, incense symbolically marked the celestial world and carried prayers to God. Later, in Islamic Egypt, the role of incense was primarily to perfume mosques and places of prayer.
The ancient Egyptian embalming process involved the use of various perfumed products. Among the main aromatic substances used was an ointment applied to the mummy’s flesh and organs to deify them. An ointment was used to impregnate the bandages and shrouds, forming a resinous shell around the body and viscera of the deceased.
This ointment was composed of cooked linseed oil, pine resin pitch, wax, bull fat, and incense. Finally, seven oils and ointments were poured over the head of the deceased. In the New Kingdom, the ritual of opening the mouth to awaken the mummy also used these same substances.
The exhibition includes a statuette of Nefertem, a stelae of Djedhor offering a lotus flower to Re-Horakhty, the god of the sun and sky in ancient Egypt, and a Christian icon of the resurrection with Mary scattering perfumes. This icon, from the Coptic Museum in Egypt, depicts the stages of resurrection and illustrates the biblical story of the three women, known as the myrrh-bearers, who carried incense and perfumes to anoint the body of Jesus Christ.
The final section of the exhibition focuses on contemporary research on perfumes in Egypt from antiquity to present, and it puts on show the flasks discovered at Buto, a recreation of kyphi, and the use of virtual reality to create an immersive experience.
Two recreations of kyphi incense have been made using a recipe from the Temple of Edfu. They were prepared by Dalia Nabawi, head of the Restoration Department at the museum, following the ancient Egyptian method.
She crushed and mixed the ingredients without using modern techniques. While some ingredients remain unidentified, others are well-documented, including a variety of raw materials and plants, along with honey, Boswellia incense resin, and myrrh.
The incenses were transformed into essential oils, allowing visitors to easily experience them, by Abdel-Rahman Medhat, a restoration specialist at the Egyptian Museum. In addition to the oils, visitors can also explore ancient Egyptian fragrances through an immersive virtual reality experience that transports them into key moments of daily, religious, and funerary life, enhanced by a specially developed olfactory dimension.
The first scene takes place in an embalming workshop, where juniper is among the fragrant plants used. The second reveals the process of producing fragrant oils, including the prized lotus oil. The third presents an offering of kyphi to Osiris in an Egyptian temple.
Visitors can smell the perfumes as they are released in sync with their mention in the virtual reality display.
Hanan Gaber, the scientific supervisor of the exhibition and a researcher at Montpellier University, explained that “one of the most distinctive aspects of the exhibition is the simulation and integration of virtual reality. We designed it to release perfumes at the exact moment they are mentioned, immersing visitors in a sensory journey that evokes the atmosphere and fragrances of ancient Egypt.”
* A version of this article appears in print in the 27 February, 2025 edition of Al-Ahram Weekly
Short link: