Food played a central role in the lives of the ancient Egyptians, serving not only as sustenance but also as an integral part of their religious, social, and economic activities. The agricultural abundance provided by the Nile River allowed for a diverse and nutritious diet, influencing cultural practices that have endured for centuries.
A temporary exhibition at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square titled “Ancient Egyptian Food: Between Life, Death, and Worship” is exploring the significance of food in ancient Egypt, highlighting its use in daily life, religious offerings, and social customs. From intricately designed bread moulds to depictions of lavish feasts, the exhibition sheds light on the culinary traditions that sustained one of the world’s greatest civilisations.
The diet of the ancient Egyptians was rich and varied, primarily based on grains, vegetables, and fish. Bread and beer formed the foundation of everyday meals, providing essential calories and nutrients. Fruit like dates, figs, and pomegranates were often eaten, while lentils, onions, and garlic were essential components of regular meals. Meat and dairy products were less frequent but were consumed by the wealthy or on special occasions.
Food production was also a key driver of Egypt’s economy in ancient times. Farmers cultivated wheat, barley, and flax along the Nile, ensuring a stable food supply. Surplus grain was stored in granaries and used for trade and as a form of taxation. The distribution of food was regulated by the state, ensuring that workers, especially those involved in massive construction projects like the Pyramids, received adequate rations.
The exhibition aims to provide visitors with a deeper understanding of the role of food in ancient Egyptian civilisation and its lasting influence on Egyptian heritage. It features a collection of artifacts that illustrate the culinary traditions of ancient times, among them miniature models of bread of various shapes and sizes, a model of an ancient Egyptian kitchen showing different stages of food preparation, offering plates, food offerings, equipment used in food production and grain grinding, as well as paintings depicting scenes of banquets and religious ceremonies.
Moamen Osman, head of the Museums Sector at the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said that the exhibition aims to emphasise the essential role of food in the lives of the ancient Egyptians, as it was deeply intertwined with their daily existence and religious beliefs, as well as their skills in agriculture, hunting, and food preparation. The ancient Egyptian diet was diverse and rich in nutrients, relying on farming, fishing, and livestock for sustenance. Bread, made from wheat and barley, played a crucial role in both nutrition and the wider economy.
Food also had a deeply religious significance. It was frequently offered to the gods as a sign of devotion. Bread, beer, vegetables, and meat were placed at altars and in tombs to ensure nourishment for both deities and the deceased in the afterlife. Archaeological discoveries have revealed elaborate feasts depicted in tomb paintings, showcasing the belief that the soul required sustenance after death.
One of the highlights of the exhibition is a statue of an offering bearer, which symbolises the importance of offerings in ancient Egyptian religious life. This artifact showcases the intricate craftsmanship of ancient Egyptian artists and provides insights into the clothing and jewellery worn by women at that time.
Ali Abdel-Halim, director-general of the Egyptian Museum, explained that archaeological discoveries have provided evidence of different bread-making techniques, including hand-shaped dough and liquid batter poured into clay moulds. “Bread was not only a staple food but also held great religious and funerary significance. It was commonly offered in temples and shrines as a means of communication with the gods and to gain their favour,” he said.
Due to its significance, a wide variety of bread types was developed. Some recipes included fats, oils, eggs, or dairy products alongside the basic ingredients of flour and water. Leavening agents were used to produce lighter, fluffier loaves. Different shapes and textures were achieved using specialised ovens and pans. Additionally, some breads were topped with seeds, seasonings, or nuts before baking for added flavour and texture.
Abdel-Halim said that food offerings were an integral part of religious rituals, extending beyond divine offerings to provisions for the deceased in their tombs to ensure nourishment in the afterlife. Funerary banquet tables were carved into tomb walls and adorned with depictions of food, reflecting the belief that these images would transform into real sustenance for the departed.
The exhibition also presents modern reproductions of various types of ancient Egyptian bread. These were created based on historical sources, including temple inscriptions, ritual scenes, and depictions of daily life.
TYPES OF FOOD: The type and quality of food consumed often reflected social hierarchy.
The wealthy enjoyed a diverse diet, including meat such as beef and poultry, exotic fruit, and honey-sweetened delicacies. In contrast, the lower classes primarily consumed grains, legumes, and fish. Large banquets were common among the elite, often featuring roasted meat, wine, and an array of fresh produce.
Dairy products, eggs, and poultry were among the primary sources of protein in ancient Egypt, alongside legumes. Farmers raised cows, goats, and sheep to produce milk, butter, and cream. Because goats and sheep were more affordable to maintain than cattle, they were the preferred livestock for poorer farmers.
Cheese-making is believed to have been introduced to Egypt during the Neolithic Period, and by the Early Dynastic Period it had developed into a specialised industry. Over time, ancient Egyptian cheese-makers refined their craft, producing both hard and soft varieties. The oldest known solid cheese sample was discovered in the tomb of Ptahmes, a mayor of Memphis during the 19th Dynasty.
Birds, both wild and domesticated, played a key role in the Egyptian diet, providing both meat and eggs. Geese, cranes, and ducks were often force-fed to increase their fat content before being cooked. Pigeons and doves were considered delicacies and were commonly used as food offerings. The Egyptians also consumed the meat and eggs of pelicans and ostriches, with ostrich eggs being especially prized for their size and rich flavour.
Evidence for chickens in ancient Egypt is more limited, as they originated in South Asia. An Egyptian ostracon dating to around 1350 BCE depicts a red jungle fowl, the wild ancestor of modern chickens. While chickens and their eggs were imported, they did not become widely farmed in Egypt until the Ptolemaic Period.
The ancient Egyptians employed various cooking techniques, including baking, boiling, grilling, and fermenting. Clay ovens and open fires were used for preparing meals, while food was preserved through drying, salting, and fermentation. These techniques ensured that food remained edible for extended periods, crucial for long voyages and storage.
From daily meals to elaborate temple offerings, food played a crucial role in shaping ancient Egyptian civilisation. Today, many of these culinary traditions continue to influence Egyptian cuisine, preserving a legacy that spans millennia.
Many traditional Egyptian dishes have their roots in ancient times and continue to be part of modern Egyptian cuisine, among them aish baladi, the traditional Egyptian flatbread, which closely resembles the bread of ancient times. Made from whole wheat, it is baked in hot ovens and remains a staple in every Egyptian household.
Foul medames is another dish originating in ancient times. It is made from fava beans and is believed to have been eaten by the ancient Egyptians. Cooked with garlic, lemon juice, and olive oil, it remains a popular breakfast dish in Egypt today. Lentil soup, a nutritious and hearty meal, has been a part of Egyptian cuisine since antiquity. Made with lentils, onions, garlic, and spices, it continues to be a comforting dish enjoyed across the country.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated and consumed a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. Dates, figs, grapes, and pomegranates were common, while onions, garlic, leeks, cucumbers, and lentils were dietary staples. These foods provided essential nutrients and were often included in stews and side dishes.
Dates and figs are still integral to Egyptian diets today. Dates are eaten fresh or dried, and figs are used in various desserts and snacks.
Fish, particularly from the Nile, was a major food source in ancient Egypt. Today, grilled and fried fish dishes remain popular, especially in cities along the Nile and coastal areas on the Mediterranean and Red Sea.
* A version of this article appears in print in the 26 March, 2025 edition of Al-Ahram Weekly
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