Yemen’s history is almost as old as human civilisation itself. From the days when trade caravans crossed the land from Maarib to the Red Sea to the moment when the earliest Arabic alphabets were carved into stone, the country stood at the crossroads of ancient cultures. Today, however, this long and layered history is gravely endangered, with Yemen’s collective memory on the brink of total collapse.
The wars in the country have no doubt taken their toll on all aspects of life in Yemen, claiming countless lives and devastating the country’s economy. Yet, beyond the human and economic devastation lies another less visible tragedy: Yemen’s ancient heritage has also been plundered during the present war, with many of its antiquities having been looted in the chaos.
This article attempts not only to monitor the number of antiquities lost in the process but also seeks to investigate the deep cultural wounds left by the chaos in a country that was once the cradle of civilisation and has turned into a marketplace of history.
The present war in Yemen has claimed nearly 400,000 lives and displaced millions, yet few acknowledge that the cultural devastation is almost equally catastrophic. Hundreds of heritage sites have been damaged or destroyed, with many of their treasures stolen, sold, or even exhibited in museums abroad. A striking example can be found at the National Museum of Asian Art in Washington, where Yemeni artefacts are displayed, reportedly acquired as “gifts”, raising troubling questions about provenance and accountability.
Reports indicate that the outbreak of the civil war in 2015 marked the start of the systematic looting of Yemen’s archaeological sites. Chaos spread, and the absence of state security turned the sites into an open playground for looters. Smugglers took advantage of the chaotic situation, and a wealth of inscriptions, statues, pottery, jewellery, and rare manuscripts were looted and sold at skyrocketing prices in international markets.
Take three auctions held last November as a case in point. Yemeni artefacts, said to be more than 5,000 years old, were put on display in these international auctions. Commentators speculate that looting gangs have been particularly active in recent years, excavating precious artefacts most probably in areas under Houthi group control.
Some archaeological sites are said to have been turned into weapons depots and military barracks, while others have been bombed, bulldozed, and sold. Experts warn that the continuation of these crimes will lead to the loss of a large part of Yemen’s heritage and history. They insist that the protection of these sites is the duty of the national and international community and that urgent interventions are needed to stop the tragedy, recover smuggled artefacts, and save what is left of the country’s cultural heritage
In Maarib, the Temple of Awam, one of the greatest ancient Arab temples known as Muharram Bilqis, has been partly destroyed, while dozens of other historic buildings located in one of the world’s oldest cities of Sanaa have been reduced to rubble, with some of their rare inscriptions and decorations lost to theft. Moreover, the Dhamar Province lost nearly 12,000 artefacts during the bombardment of one of its main museums in 2015.
Meanwhile, the Taiz main museum was looted during the battles, which led to the loss of many statues and bronze inscriptions representing important stages in Yemen’s ancient history.
Areas located away from the battlefields were not spared from smugglers. Areas like Hadramawt and Shabwa, albeit far from the conflict, had many of their archaeological sites looted by local people probably driven by poverty and encouraged by organised gangs seeking profit.
The soil of these areas has ironically been turned into “an open graveyard for Yemeni civilisation” where looters have buried valuable artefacts until they can be smuggled via land or sea to international dealers.
One of the most endangered archaeological sites is the Al-Amriya Mosque and Madrasa (school) located in the city of Radaa. It is considered to be one of the most important mosques and ancient schools in Yemen and dates back to 910 AH/1504 CE during the reign of king Al-Zafir Amer bin Abdel-Wahab, king of the Tahiri State.
The mosque won the Aga Khan Award for Islamic Architecture in the Protection of World Heritage and is supposed to be a candidate for the UN cultural agency UNESCO’s World Heritage List. But the mosque and the school have been turned into a battleground for the Ansar Al-Sharia group affiliated with Al-Qaeda, on the one hand, and the Yemeni army, on the other, since the outbreak of the war in 2011. Severe damage has been done to the historic edifice.
Internal conflict between the Houthis and the Ansar Al-Sunnah group caused damage to the walls of the historic fortress of the city of Radaaa in 2014. The fortress dates back to the reign of the Himyarite king Shammar Yahrash, who ruled in the third century CE.
Among the sites partly or totally damaged in the Yemeni capital Sanaa is the Mosque and Mausoleum of Imam Abdel-Razzaq Ibn Hammam Al-Sanaani. The imam died in 211 AH in the Hamra area of the Dar Al-Hayd town in the Sanhan district.
In the Al-Dhalea governorate, the archaeological site of Dar Al-Hassan in the historic village of Damt, which dates back to the pre-Islamic period, has been damaged. In the Aden governorate, the third floor of the National Museum, which dates back to the reign of Sultan Fadl bin Ali Al-Abdali in 1912, has been bombarded along with the historic Mosque of Jawhara and the Sira Castle.
The castle is one of the most prominent fortresses in the city of Aden and was built in the 11th century CE and has played a significant role in the protection of the city.
The Taiz governorate similarly saw its historic Cairo Citadel, which dates back to the era of the Sulayhid State (1045-1138 CE), damaged. The citadel witnessed the first years of the city of Taiz and has played important military and political roles throughout history. It served as a residence for the Egyptian Ayoubid Dynasty during its conquest of Yemen in 1173 CE and later became the seat of the Rasulids who ruled Yemen between 1229 and 1454 CE.
An air strike on the old city of Saada saw a serious blow to one of its oldest mosques, the Mosque of Imam Hadi Ala Al-Haq Yehia bin Al-Hussein bin Al-Qasim, which dates back to 290 AH. Raids on Sanaa also dealt a serious blow to its Qasr Al-Salah fortress, which is considered to be one of the world’s oldest architectural gems and is believed to have been built on the ruins of the earlier Ghamdan Palace.
The Yemeni historian and geographer Abu Mohamed Al-Hassan Al-Hamdani, who lived in the fourth century AH / 10th century CE, mentioned the building in Chapter 8 of his book Al-Ikleel. According to this, king Saif bin Di Yazan, the last king of the Himyarite State in the sixth century CE, lived in the palace. The traveller Mohamed Al-Qazwini also later described it as an “Arabian wonder”. Some houses in the Old City of Sanaa and the ancient village of Faj Attan were also heavily damaged in heavy bombardments.
In the same vein, the Al-Jawf governorate has been subjected to bombardment that has destroyed many of its archaeological sites, including the ancient wall of the city of Baraqish, which dates back to the fifth century BCE.
In the city of Sirwah in Maarib governorate, the Temple of Awal Sirwah, which dates back to the era of the Sabaean State, has serious cracks in its ancient walls. The temple was one of the archaeological sites excavated by a German mission in 2005 and features the most important known Sabaean inscription dating back to the seventh century BCE.
LOOTING: But air strikes and bombardments are not the only blows that have been made against archaeological sites in Yemen. The country’s heritage has also been subject to systematic assaults and looting, probably meant to obliterate its history in the absence of state security.
Two years ago, the archaeological site of Haran in Dhamar was exposed to damage carried out under the pretext of establishing a tourism project funded by an Iranian association. The project included illegal developments and the destruction of parts of the site as well as the illicit transfer of antiquities to anonymous parties.
Likewise, unknown persons reportedly carried out extensive excavation work at the archaeological site of Masnaat Maria in the Anas district, apparently in search of minerals and archaeological finds. Residents said the excavation was almost certainly condoned by the security forces. Eyewitnesses confirmed that the gang found various artefacts, which were probably smuggled to foreign markets.
Other testimonies indicate that the illicit excavation activities extended to sites belonging to other ancient Yemeni civilisations, which led to the destruction of mummies and the obliteration of unique historical monuments.
The damage also took place at two archaeological cemeteries, one located on a mountain slope in the Jahran district, and the other in the village of Al-Nawari in the Atmeh district, in addition to sites in the areas of Al-Mukhtabiyah, Al-Hatmeh and Masnaat Maria in the districts of Al-Hada and Anas.
In the Raymah governorate southwest of the capital Sanaa, Yemen’s General Authority for Antiquities and Museums strongly denounced what it described as a “blatant attack” on one of the most important archaeological sites in the village of Rabat. A commission reported that the archaeological site had been subjected to illicit excavation in order to find an alleged archaeological treasure inside an old room.
It confirmed that the craters dug by the looters had reached a depth of two metres before the excavation was stopped as it posed a threat to the historic edifice.
In the Al-Bayda governorate, decorative elements and the doors of the historic Al-Amiriya Mosque and School in the Radaa district were targeted. Officials at the General Authority for Antiquities accused Houthi security forces of being involved and sent an official memorandum to the group’s governor in Al-Bayda, calling on him to take the necessary measures to protect the site.
In the Ibb governorate, home to archaeological sites belonging to the Himyarite and Sulayhiyah States, officials in the Antiquities Authority said archaeological sites had been subjected to systematic looting since the Houthis took control of the area.
According to official sources, the site of Al-Osaibiyah in Jabal Essam in the Al-Sada district was subjected to illegal digging, which resulted in the looting of statues and gold coins, with the participation of local residents.
The General Authority for Antiquities and Museums confirmed that guards had confronted the looters, and an exchange of fire had taken place resulting in the arrest of two suspects. The director of the Antiquities Department in the area reported that four random excavations were being monitored on the southern side of the site, stressing that the investigation was being followed up to arrest the rest of those involved.
In the Sanhan district in the Sanaa governorate, the General Authority for Antiquities and Museums has documented the complete destruction of an archaeological site in Jabal Al-Qanaa in the village of Beit Al-Jaki, as a result of illicit excavations carried out by local individuals without any security control from the authorities.
The site is a pre-Islamic structure and features buried buildings and stone walls, some of which are a full metre high. According to specialists, the excavation work completely destroyed the architectural structure of the site, while the local authorities and security services turned a blind eye to the violations.
Although Yemini legislation criminalises the endangering of archaeological sites, many insist that violations persist in the light of the alleged disregard of the local authorities, particularly in areas under Houthi control. According to testimonies from the residents of the affected areas, illicit excavation gangs often operate at night, while the authorities remain silent or only intervene on a limited and belated basis.
The Saudi Antiquities Authority has reiterated its calls to stop all illegal excavations in Yemen, hold those involved, including any officials, accountable, and promote community awareness of the importance of protecting antiquities as an essential component of Yemen’s identity.
ISRAELI ATTACKS: Yemen’s General Authority for Antiquities and Museums in Sanaa has recently revealed that some 34 rare Yemeni antiquities were damaged as a result of Israeli airstrikes on areas around the National Museum in the capital’s Tahrir Square.
The statement did not explain why no preventive measures had been taken to protect the capital’s historic buildings.
The report noted the destruction of large parts of the Museum’s facilities, including the Dar Al-Saada and the Dar Al-Mali, two of the oldest historical buildings in the complex. In addition, the museum’s walls were cracked and its windows shattered in addition to damage to the edifice’s mashrabiya, furniture, and exhibition halls, again amid the absence of any local and international moves to protect this historic building.
Among the damaged pieces was a famous bronze statue of the “Lady of Incense” that dates back to the fifth century BCE. Damage was also done to another 13 stone inscriptions, artefacts from Hadramawt, Sheba, and Maain, Islamic coins, Kaaba cladding, and display cases.
Despite the magnitude of the damage, the General Authority for Antiquities and Museums only recently announced the formation of an emergency committee to inventory the damaged pieces. Meanwhile, the Houthi-affiliated Yemeni Ministry of Communications began repairing surveillance cameras and solar panels but did not explain why the place was not properly protected with advanced emergency equipment.
The targeting of monuments, museums, and cultural monuments is a war crime according to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its Protocols, as well as the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions of 1977, which prohibit the use of cultural property for military purposes, and the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, which criminalises the illicit trafficking of cultural property.
Reports issued by UNESCO indicated that in recent years Yemen has lost more than 10,000 artefacts, many of which have been placed on display at auctions in London, Paris, and New York. Some organisations estimate that at least 200 archaeological sites in the country have been vandalised or looted since the beginning of the conflict.
Despite repeated international condemnations, most of the looted artefacts remain in the possession of private dealers and collectors. The process of retrieving them may be difficult in the absence of any official documentation and the difficulty of tracing their smuggling out of the country. Many of the pieces left Yemen without digital records, making their recovery almost impossible, especially in the light of the political rifts within the country.
Some local and international initiatives have emerged to try to curb the massive losses, but for the moment they seem too weak to curb the disaster. UNESCO previously issued a 2018 resolution prohibiting the import, export, or sale of any Yemeni artefact without legal proof of its provenance. Yemen’s General Authority for Antiquities and Museums has also collaborated with organisations such as the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Zones (ALIPH) in projects that provide the digital documentation of antiquities as well as training to local security and officials.
Some of these international efforts have seemed to pay off. In 2023, the US announced the return of a number of Yemeni artefacts that had been smuggled through New York auctions. Albeit symbolic, this step on the part of the US highlights the importance of international cooperation in countering the illicit antiquities trade.
Currently, however, such efforts remain sporadic in the face of the widespread destruction, especially in the light of the political divisions in Yemen and the lack of funding to protect or maintain sites. A number of Yemeni activists have thus decided to take matters into their own hands, launching social-media campaigns under the hashtag #SaveYemeni_Antiquities.
The campaign aims to publish photos of stolen objects and educate the community about the importance of protecting its heritage.
Some digital platforms such as the Yemen Virtual Museum have also attempted to document the remaining antiquities digitally and display them to visitors around the world, so that their memory remains alive, even if virtually. These initiatives constitute a symbolic barrier to attempts to obliterate Yemen’s cultural identity. Culture cannot be bombed or looted into oblivion as long as there is someone to tell its story.
The world’s silence over the looting of the Yemeni heritage means it is complicit in this cultural crime. Every museum that agrees to buy a stolen artefact and every auction house that opens its doors to sell Yemeni artefacts of unknown provenance is implicitly participating in the obliteration of an entire civilisation.
International conventions on the protection of heritage during conflicts should be put into effect, digital traceability mechanisms should be strengthened, and technical and financial support should be provided to Yemen’s debilitated institutions.
Linking heritage protection to development and cultural tourism could also transform these sites into a source of pride and sustainable income, provided that there is the will and awareness on the part of those concerned.
Yemen was historically described as the “paradise of the Arabs”. Now that it is suffering from ongoing wars and deep political rifts, the story of Yemen deserves to be retold through its own history, as inscribed on the country’s walls and buildings, and not through stolen artefacts on display in western museums.
Restoring greater awareness of the importance of heritage is a vital first step in this direction.
The writer is a senior researcher at the Centre for Coptic Studies in Cairo.
* A version of this article appears in print in the 15 January, 2026 edition of Al-Ahram Weekly
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