The Salaheddin Al-Ayoubi Citadel is one of Cairo’s most celebrated landmarks and one of the greatest military fortresses of the mediaeval world.
Dominating Cairo’s skyline for centuries, it is one of the most prominent monuments within UN cultural agency UNESCO’s World Heritage Site of Historic Cairo and a powerful symbol of Egypt’s rich cultural heritage and architectural achievements.
However, beyond the citadel’s imposing fortifications, the history of the communities that once thrived in its shadow has remained largely unknown. A groundbreaking archaeological project conducted jointly by the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) and the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology (IFAO) is shedding new light on these sometimes-forgotten areas, revealing remarkable discoveries that are rewriting our understanding of life around one of Egypt’s most iconic monuments.
The transformation of the areas surrounding the Salaheddin Al-Ayoubi Citadel has created a rare archaeological opportunity. Following the relocation of several neighbourhoods as part of a broader government-led development initiative, archaeologists gained access for the first time to extensive areas along the citadel’s northern and southern borders, zones that had remained inaccessible for centuries.
The joint Egyptian-French mission has been conducting systematic excavations and studies in these newly opened areas since 2024, focusing on two historically significant areas: the southern external enclosure, where the Magra Al-Oyoun Aqueduct is believed to terminate at a monumental waterwheel tower associated with the Mameluke Sultan Al-Nasir Mohamed Ibn Qalawun; and the northern enclosure, home to the Al-Nizamiyah Khanqah (Sufi religious institution) and Mosque of the Seven Sultans.
What has emerged from the excavations is far more than a study of defensive walls. Archaeologists are uncovering evidence of urban expansion, infrastructure, religious activity, and daily life spanning the Ayyubid, Mameluke, and Ottoman periods in Egypt. The discoveries are providing an unprecedented glimpse into the evolution of the districts that developed around the citadel, revealing how this great fortress interacted with the city it was built to protect.
As the excavations continue, the project is not only contributing to the preservation and presentation of Cairo’s historic landscape but also opening a new chapter in the story of the citadel, one that extends beyond its walls and into the lives of the generations who lived, worked, and worshipped in its shadow.
Among the most remarkable discoveries emerging from the ongoing excavations around the citadel are those uncovered in the southern sector known as the Arab Al-Yassar area.
“What was once an overlooked area beyond the fortress walls has revealed itself to be the site of an extraordinary hydraulic complex that played a vital role in sustaining one of the mediaeval world’s most formidable strongholds,” said SCA Secretary-General Hisham Al-Leithy.
Over three excavation seasons, according to the IFAO, archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a sophisticated water-management system dating primarily to the Mameluke period. Massive stone-built wells, water-lifting mechanisms powered by saqiyas (water wheels), and an intricate network of channels and conduits have gradually emerged from beneath centuries of accumulated deposits.
Together, these discoveries suggest that the area served as the final stage of the famous Magra Al-Oyoun Aqueduct before water was transported into the citadel itself.
Far from being a simple water-distribution point, the site reveals a highly organised operational landscape. Archaeologists have identified traces of animal circulation routes, stables, storage facilities, and service areas associated with the operation of the hydraulic system, offering a rare glimpse into the complex infrastructure required to keep the citadel functioning.
Complementary archaeological and historical analyses have begun to refine the understanding of the aqueduct’s development, notably under Mameluke Sultans Al-Nasir Mohamed and Qansuh Al-Ghouri, while also highlighting unresolved issues, such as the now-lost connection between the aqueduct and the citadel.
One of the most significant discoveries is a massive stone tower rising above a vast underground cistern that has yet to be fully excavated. Archaeologists believe the structure formed a crucial part of the citadel’s water supply system. Water arriving through the Magra Al-Oyoun Aqueduct was likely collected in the subterranean reservoir before being lifted mechanically by a series of waterwheels and conveyed uphill to the citadel.
The tower itself bears witness to centuries of use and adaptation. Detailed architectural analysis has revealed evidence of multiple construction phases and later modifications, reflecting the changing needs of successive generations.
Some of the upper sections of the structure may date to the Ottoman period, while others could be linked to the French occupation of Egypt at the end of the 18th century, when the tower appears to have been incorporated into the citadel’s defensive network. Today, the structure stands as a remarkable testament to the ingenuity, resilience, and continual transformation of one of mediaeval Cairo’s most important engineering achievements.
The story also does not end at the waterwheel tower. Recent excavations have pushed further west, uncovering a carefully constructed stone canal extending from the hydraulic complex. Investigations in newly opened sectors have confirmed that this conduit continued across the landscape, following a remarkably consistent gradient that reflects a sophisticated understanding of engineering and terrain.
Archaeologists believe the channel may have supplied water to important facilities associated with the citadel, possibly including the royal stables.
Further discoveries: As researchers trace the course of the canal, they are uncovering far more than the remains of a water network.
Layer upon layer of archaeological deposits have revealed evidence of continuous human activity spanning several centuries. Beneath the surface lie traces of Mameluke construction works, later domestic occupation, and more recent phases of reuse, offering a rare glimpse into the evolving life of the area beyond the citadel walls.
Taken together, these discoveries are transforming our understanding of how the citadel functioned. Rather than an isolated fortress perched above the city, the evidence points to a vast and highly organised hydraulic system, carefully integrated into both the surrounding landscape and the architectural fabric of the citadel itself.
The newly identified installations appear to represent previously unknown elements of the Magra Al-Oyoun Aqueduct, helping scholars reconstruct one of the most ambitious water-supply systems in mediaeval Cairo.
Mohamed Ibrahim, an associate professor of Islamic Archaeology at Ain Shams University in Cairo and co-director of the mission, said that the discovery may represent the first identification of the final stage of the aqueduct’s hydraulic system, a section that has not been documented in surviving historical sources.
Yet many questions remain unanswered. Where did the water travel once it entered the citadel? How did the network evolve over the centuries? And could some of the deepest archaeological layers preserve evidence dating back to the time of Salaheddin (Saladin) himself?
Future excavation seasons will seek to answer these questions. Archaeologists plan to continue tracing the route of the canal, investigate the site’s deepest deposits down to the bedrock, and establish a more precise chronology for the development of the hydraulic system. As the excavations continue, each new discovery is helping to illuminate a forgotten chapter in the history of the citadel, one that reveals not only the ingenuity of its builders but also the complex urban landscape that flourished beyond its walls.
According to Diaa Zahran, head of the Islamic, Coptic, and Jewish Antiquities Sector at the SCA, excavations in the Al-Hattaba area located to the north of the citadel have brought to light the remains of a Mameluke mosque. Several of its architectural features have survived, including the qibla iwan (the principal prayer hall facing Mecca), the mihrab (prayer niche), parts of the south-western riwaq, (arcade) and sections of the original stone flooring.
A group of burials belonging to different times in the Islamic period and containing human skeletal remains was also uncovered, while archaeologists also identified a tomb tentatively dated to the early Islamic period, or possibly to the late Byzantine period, opening new perspectives on the historical and urban development of the area.
Among the artefacts recovered were ceramic qawadis, vessels used in water-lifting mechanisms, as well as Mameluke and Ottoman coins and jewellery, metal seals, coins, and fragments of weapons dating from the 18th and 19th centuries.
According to the IFAO, in 2026 documentation was carried out on the principal visible monument in the northern sector, the Al-Nizamiyya Khanqah. Located at the northern extremity of the rocky promontory on which the citadel stands, this monument overlooks the Bab Al-Wazir district and the wider city of Cairo. It rises several dozen metres above the sabil (water fountain) of Shaykhu at the edge of the centuries-old village of Al-Hattaba.
The building is a square structure measuring approximately 35 x 35 metres. Its appearance is that of a fortress, and it fulfilled such a function at some stage of its history. This contrasts with the inscription carved above its entrance, which identifies it as a khanqah. Although the monument has been mentioned in several previous studies, it was only recently identified by French scholar Stéphane Pradines as the “Fort Martinet” used during the late 18th-century French occupation of Cairo. The identification was subsequently published by Mohamed Hamdi Metwally in 2017.
Research undertaken as part of the French-Egyptian project has documented the monument’s multiple uses. Founded in 1357 by the Mameluke amir Nizam Al-Din, the building originally functioned as a khanqah. Its architectural layout differs from that of many other Cairene examples and may reflect a more flexible or hybrid function. Ottoman-period descriptions refer to it as a large and active religious complex (tekeyya) combining spiritual, residential and charitable roles.
Archaeological investigations have also revealed a later funerary phase, during which the site was reused as a cemetery. The funerary layout is centred on two principal limestone burial chambers and surrounded by additional vaulted and simpler graves. This phase has not yet been precisely dated.
Another major phase occurred during the French occupation of Egypt between 1798 and 1801, when the khanqah was partially destroyed and converted into a small fort known as Fort Martinet. As part of this transformation, the structure was integrated into a wider defensive system surrounding the citadel and underwent substantial architectural modifications associated with military use.
Recent work has focused on documenting these successive phases through archaeological excavation, architectural study, and three-dimensional recording. The investigations have also identified reused materials (spolia), including elements that may have originated from ancient Egyptian sarcophagi.
Minister of Tourism and Antiquities Sherif Fathy described the findings as a “major contribution” to the understanding of the citadel’s architectural and functional development across the Islamic period. He emphasised the site’s long-standing role as Egypt’s political and administrative centre, noting that the discoveries support ongoing efforts to preserve Historic Cairo and integrate its monuments into cultural tourism routes.
Pierre Tallet, director of the IFAO, described the mission as a leading example of international scientific cooperation in the field of Islamic archaeology, highlighting its contribution to uncovering new aspects of Cairo’s rich historical heritage.
He added that the project includes a training school dedicated to training inspectors from the SCA in modern excavation and documentation techniques, thereby supporting long-term capacity building and professional development.
Simon Connor, a scientific member of the IFAO and co-director of the French mission, said the team is applying high-precision architectural and photogrammetric documentation while digitising all its findings into a comprehensive database covering the citadel and its surroundings.
Newly exposed architectural sections, along with Mameluke and Ottoman tombs, have been recorded as part of the survey. Ongoing and future research aims to clarify the monument’s original layout, refine the chronology of its transformations, and contribute to its preservation as part of the wider archaeological landscape surrounding the citadel.
* A version of this article appears in print in the 11 June, 2026 edition of Al-Ahram Weekly
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